European History 1200-1400
The lives of Pope Innocent III, Philip IV of France, Giotto di Bondone, Manuel Chrysolorus, and John Wycliff exemplify the changes in European history from 1200 to 1400. Collectively they illustrate changes in the politics and culture of their times: Innocent III the state of affairs at the beginning of this period, Philip IV the struggle for power between the Catholic church and the secular rulers of Europe, Giotto the changes in the arts, Chrysolorus the renewed in interest in classical antiquity, and Wycliff the growing discontentment with the church.
Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) exemplifies the power of the papacy at the end of the Middle Ages. As a canon lawyer he is able to use canon law to solidify the power of the papacy. With the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) Innocent declares the Catholic church one and universal all power flows from the pope through the church hierarchy to the priest. He affirms the mystical power of the priesthood through the doctrine of transubstantiation (the belief that the bread and wine undergo a physical transformation into the body and blood of Christ). He regulates the sacraments as the channel of divine grace and requires annual confession and receipt of communion. Lastly, he declares anti-Semitic rules such as a requirement for Jews to wear distinctive clothing. Innocent III is the most politically powerful pope in history with the ability to control both the religious and secular lives of Europe at the beginning of the 13th Century.
Papal power declined following Innocent's death so that by the reign of Philip IV "The Fair" (1285-1314), Pope Boniface VIII is unable to control the secular rulers of Europe. Philip demonstrated at least the appearance of great piety by leading crusades against the Jews and the Templars. However, the seemingly endless wars with England, left his war chest depleted, and so Philip taxed church lands in France to support it. Boniface attempted to stop this taxation with...
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